The questions and methods for gathering census data have changed over time from the first census of the U.S. in 1790. Changes include:
This page will highlight some of the important dates in the development of the census, along with specific historical context and changes to the census that researchers should become familiar with.
Early efforts were made in a few American colonies and states to register life events. Epidemics of smallpox and cholera led to increased interest in the number of deaths, especially as the population grew. Strides were made in scientific thinking and the use of statistical data for social analysis. Look at events influencing lives of colonial Americans.
1632 Virginia requires churches to register births, marriages, & deaths
1639 Mass. Bay Colony lawto keep birth & death records.
1751 Benjamin Franklin publishes Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind.
1775-1783 Revolutionary War
1780 American Academy of Arts & Sciences founded
1781 Massachusetts Medical Society established
1790 First U.S. Census
In 1850, the Census expanded questions to include names and other information about all free people and added special schedules. Some of these were precursors to vital registration.
U.S. Census subjects
The early U.S. Censuses showed basic information hinting at vital information, but in 1850 enumeration questions expanded to cover all free people and formerly enslaved beginning in 1870. See the introduction and inclusion of Census subjects as the decades progressed.
|
Age and sex |
1790-present (but only for free whites until 1820) |
|
Slave status |
1790-1860 |
|
Color or race |
1790-present |
|
Marital status |
1880-present |
|
Mortality |
1850-1890 (only to 1880 for North Carolina) |
|
Place of birth |
1850-present |
|
Number of children ever born |
1890-1910, 1940-1990 |
Pitcher, Smithsonian National Museum of American History, ca. 1790
Religious institutions conducted the earliest registration of christenings, marriages, and deaths in the American colonies. Virginia and Massachusetts established marriage, birth, and death registrations in the 1630s, but laws and decrees were rarely enforced. The first U.S. Census in 1790 gathered population information statistics for taxation and representation. Interest grew in using the decennial Census to learn more about the American people, including enslaved populations, and to measure numbers to implement government, health, and social change. European statistical studies using population data increased and influenced scientists and reformers in the new nation.
19th century medicine and science focused on the betterment of humanity by correcting then perceived moral failings (especially the evils of liquor) and the unhealthy environments in which some people lived. It was a time of both rapid population and industrial growth. In addition, there was the rise of fraternal, temperance, and anti-slavery movements. Scientific and medical societies debated using Census data to discuss health standards and the nation's future, although most studies focused on differences between race and ethnicity.
In the 19th century there were many challenges to census enumeration and vital record registration. These included:
The child labor reform movement gained traction in the late 19th century and came to fruition in the early 20th century. The introduction and requirement of birth records helped enforce child labor laws protecting children from entering the workforce in dangerous and unhealthy conditions. Birth records also became necessary to receive benefits from social security and other welfare initiatives created through President Roosevelt’s New Deal program. Additionally, birth certificates were required as proof of citizenship for all defense industry workers, especially during World War II.
Today
A better-coordinated system between state and national entities emerged after World War II. The 1944 Public Health Act gave legislative authority for the federal government to collect vital statistics and helped create the National Office of Vital Statistics. Today’s reporting depends upon the cooperation and collaboration of individuals through governmental entities. The issue of compliance is not a challenge in the United States today as it was in the past.
Modern Reporting System
The chart below shows how birth, death, and marriage information is reported and demonstrates the level of coordination that is required of individuals and government entities.
In addition to adding more questions to the decennial questionnaires, the Census Bureau gathered information in special schedules. Although they covered a range of topics, some can aid researchers finding vital information. The Census Bureau turned publications over to the National Archives and they were eventually microfilmed and made public.
Slave Schedules, 1850 and 1860
These enumerated enslaved people in the Southern States in 1850 and 1860, although neither showed names except for the slaveholder. Only sex and age were recorded. It was hoped the 1860 Slave Schedules would include more information about the enslaved, but those efforts failed to pass Congress.
Where to find them:
The SLNC Government & Heritage Library has both years on microfilm for North Carolina. There are also several published abstracts in the reading room.
Learn more:
Mortality Schedules, 1850-1880 for North Carolina
Physicians were asked to provide the name, age, sex, race, cause of death, and the number of days in care for those who died within a calendar year of the Census enumeration. These schedules rarely show an enslaved person's name, age, and death.
Where to find them:
The SLNC Government & Heritage Library has microfilm for all years for North Carolina and published abstracts (in print) for many states. These are located in the library's public reading room.
*access with a SLNC GHL library card